[1] Political science as it is understood in the West did not exist during the Soviet period of development of the Republic of Belarus, an independent state which appeared on the map of Europe practically right after the breakup of the USSR. What existed instead of political science was an artificial Marxist-Leninist construct, the so-called theory of scientific communism, whose intent was to demonstrate the inevitability of the victory of the socialist revolution, the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the building of a socialist state, and its gradual transformation into communism. All theoretical and practical aspects within the framework of the theory of scientific communism were derived directly from the general principles of Marxism-Leninism. Naturally all those involved in this social discipline, in Belarus as in the rest of the USSR, officially more or less strictly adhered to Marxist-Leninist dogmas. This discipline was a compulsory subject in all Soviet institutions of higher learning. There was no question of any development of the political science free of ideological control.
[2] As in other constituent republics of the USSR, the official representatives of this discipline included many so-called "party theoreticians": party functionaries at various levels and especially those responsible for providing an ideological justification for the party line. Such a personnel policy made it possible for the dominant political elite to keep totally under their control issues of state and power and to interpret them accordingly in the elementary, secondary and higher education systems, as well as the adult political education system. Since formally the theory of scientific communism was part and parcel of the system of philosophical sciences, its representatives earned candidate and doctor of philosophy degrees. Not surprisingly, this sphere did not attract young talented scholars so that the development of the theory of scientific communism became the bailiwick either of the old party cadres, or of young career-oriented PhD students seeking for a short cut to moving up in the Soviet social science hierarchy by becoming obedient apologists for the dominant party line.
[3] That said, even in Soviet times there were individual scholars of society's political life who attempted an ideologically non-preconceived analysis of specific political problems. Formally these scholars represented, either sociology, which had begun to develop in the end of the 1970's (in this case they studied specific aspects of the functioning of the Soviet political institutions and the development of political consciousness, based on empirical sociological survey data, and implemented some very abstract critical notes), or they studied the history of the political thought, especially abroad, while remaining within the framework of the history of philosophy or even that of historical materialism (Evgenii Babosov, Anatoly Gusev, Georgy Davidjuk, Leonid Yevmenov).
[4] All in all, however, in the years of Gorbachev's Perestroika there was a positive change in the development of studies of political issues. One would probably not be justified in calling this period the real time of the birth of political science in Belarus, since the theoretical limits which studies were not allowed to breach were considerably widened, but did not vanish altogether (let us not forget that Gorbachev had proclaimed the concept of "new political thinking" which was to provide theoretical justification for the end of the Cold War and outline a new path for the development of the USSR under totally different international conditions). Censorship remained. Also remained the general Marxist-Leninist framework of political reasoning, even though Gorbachev’s ideas, which Soviet political scientists of the time embraced, no longer squared with the major Marxist-Leninist dogma and were in essence borrowed from the West.
[5] Thus by continuing in the post-Soviet period scholarly work which was formally at the interface of political science and sociology or philosophy these scholars contributed to the evaluation of issues of power and associated problems. The positive influence of these scholars on the post-Soviet formative stage of political science in Belarus and its development cannot be ignored even though they continued to be viewed not as political scientists, but as sociologists and philosophers (Evgenii Babosov, for instance, is formally considered a sociologist, even though his work essentially deals with many significant political science issues). In any case, even after 1991 socio-political conditions in Belarus were not favorable to society's freeing itself of Marxist-Leninist traditions and ideas. At least this has not yet happened in the last 10 years or so. One can say that today the academic political science in Belarus is still politisized itself as it was under Soviet rule with social sciences.
[6] This paper will demonstrate that the dominant Marxist-Leninist legacy and the specific path of post-Soviet political development in Belarus have in many ways predetermined this result. It is precisely the weak and sluggish implementation in Belarus of political and economic reforms directed toward promoting democracy and the market economy that is responsible for the sluggish and lagging development of political science in Belarus.
[7] By its very nature political science has a critical function: assessing political reality. If political science is prevented from expressing an independent view of the state and the powers that be, it cannot possibly develop freely. Only the existence of a developed civil society, a democratic political regime with well-developed system of political parties, can ensure the productive development of political science. These conditions, however, have not come about, the political potential that opened has so far not come to fruition.
[8] The rise of an independent Belarus state set the stage for politics to become something that the people of Belarus could actually engage in. The beginning of the 1990's, the first steps of an independent Belarus with a dynamic political sphere, competitive politics, multi-candidate elections, and a spirit of hope and change, caused many social scientists to switch to the study of political science. These changes caused many social scientists to switch to the study of issues of the developing political science. The fairly rapid rise of political science as an academic and teaching discipline began; at the same time analytical materials began to appear in the press whose authors were attempting not merely to describe processes and phenomena, but to generate an interpretive model of democratization applicable to Belarus.
[9] Thus, the rise of an independent Belarus state in 1991 marked the start of the development of Belarus political science. This was the beginning of the institutionalization of political science as an academic discipline, as well as a field for political analysis in Belarus.
[10] It is necessary to mention that in Belarus, as in other post-Soviet republics, political science made its appearance as an "import". In Belarus political science arose amid the deconstruction of Soviet-era social science. At the beginning of the 1990’s, society, or at least its political and intellectual elites, had many hopes for the rapid democratization of political life as a result of structural reforms of the political system. Democratization was viewed in its Western version, which naturally entailed acceptance of Western political values and standards.
[11] Somewhat later another (applied) mode of politology – so called political technologies, began to develop without which analytical and technological support of political activity is well-nigh impossible. Such a "belated" development of political technologies in Belarus was natural: before models for the technological solution of any problems can be developed, scholarship must be able to provide adequate analysis and interpretation.
[12] In 1994 the institution of the presidency was introduced in the Belarus Republic and the first presidential elections took place. For the first time since independence, citizens were able to take part in democratic elections; Belarus citizens had last gone to the polls in 1990 (in Soviet times). The presidential elections proved to be an acid test for Belarus political technologists, as well as the 1995 parliamentary elections. However, Belarus political technologists were unable at that moment in time to come up with a comprehensive assessment of the political system as a whole and to define optimum ways of its development.
[13] The influence that experts had on the ways of political decision-making was relatively low. In general, such kind of political analysis was developing outside the centers of political decision-making and had little to do with academic political science. Later on, after the 1996 parliamentary crisis that substantially changed the balance of political forces between the partisans and opponents of presidential power, a similar split took place among political technologists. On the other hand, academic political science continued to strive for unbiased analysis. In particular, political scientists have rethought the nature and the models of democracy, and have began studying local politics (local elites, the relationship between intellectuals and the powers that be, etc.).
[14] A new stage in the development of political science in Belarus began after the 2000 parliamentary elections and the 2001 presidential elections. The new reality forced political scientists to tackle a new range of problems. Against the background of the integration of Belarus and Russia, slow-moving and full of contradictions as it was, the need became clear to investigate the nature of Belarus national identity, the national interests and national security needs of Belarus, as well as the ideology of the Belarus state. The study and conceptualization of identity (nation-wide, region/state, linguistic, etc.) is taking place in close connection with the investigations of integration and nation building in Belarus.
[15] The process of devising a new state ideology, which began after the 2001 presidential elections, caused widely different reactions among the public and the political scientists. On the one hand certain political scientists view the development of a state ideology as inappropriate for an inbiased science; on the other hand all states have a need for a national ideology, in the sense of a unifying, integrative idea, and the development of such an ideology would be a natural task for political scientists. In the context of the current "ideologization" taking place in the country, Belarus political science is facing a dilemma: it can place itself at the service of the powers that be or it can go the other way, toward a scholarly discipline devoted to defining the specific national characteristics of Belarus. Only in the latter case will it dawn on the Belarus scholarly community that its work must be compatible the ethics of scholarship.
[16] Today an essentially Marxist approach still prevails in Belarus political science. This fact is not advertised, the term itself is hardly ever used, but the presence of Marxist ideas is quite evident in the content of many Belarus political science inquiries. The reasons for this are easily understood if one looks at the people currently working in the field of political science.
[17] The time following the breakup of the USSR, which coincided with the formative period of Belarus political science, can be described in theoretical terms as the reign of eclecticism. First of all, the scholars, who have been forced to change their outlook under the new political conditions and to turn into political scientists, have been unable to give up their Marxist-Leninist past. Educated in Soviet times they were trained according to Marxist theoretical traditions and based their outlook on a contemporary version of Marxism (I cannot call it neo-Marxism since this term is strongly associated with other theoretical and methodological traditions not shared by Belarus political scientists). Those few scholars who had had free access to Western literature not available in Russian translation either have failed to make full of this literature in their own scholarship, or have elected to retain monopoly of this literature and not to share it with their colleagues (unfortunately, this tendency is still widespread).
[18] Second, the young scholars entering political science had also been educated in the Marxist tradition and therefore had shared some of the stereotypes of Soviet times. The passage of time and outside influences were required to overcome these tendencies.
[19] Third, in Soviet times Belarus had always suffered a shortage of contemporary scholarly literature and foreign periodicals had been in short supply. Everything went to Moscow which in Soviet times was monopolizing theory and dictating which topics each union republic was to work on. As a result, as far as scholarship was concerned, Belarus remained a backwater even in terms of the development of "theory of scientific communism". Only those who worked abroad had access to the full range of contemporary theoretical sources. Most other scholars were able at best to spend a short time in the libraries of Moscow. After 1991 Belarus no longer had any financial resources at all for acquisition of foreign literature. As a result, even today, even Russian periodicals are in short supply, not to mention Western publications; for all practical purposes many periodicals are simply not available. Such a shortage had to have an effect on the training of scholars. Only those who have foreign scholarly contacts, have studied abroad or have lived there for a long time (Vitaly Silitsky, Elena Korosteleva, Vladimir Rovdo etc.) have attempted to enter the international arena and to compete with foreign political scientists.
[20] Forth, at first it seemed possible to continue using Russian theoretical work and the Russian scholar training system. Good contacts with the teaching and research institutions of Russia seemed to make this a possibility. But as time passed these contacts have weakened, and the need to train Belarus’ own scholars, and to develop its own academic schools and approaches has become clear. "Western" influences have begun to grow, spurred by contacts with scholars from Western Europe, Japan, and the US. Changes in the system of training for highly qualified scholars have created a number of factors favoring the development of political science on Belarus soil. That said, there still is a shortage of highly qualified political scholars in Belarus. Although the Supreme Accreditation Committee under the BSSR Council of Ministers had included political science in its list of scholarly specialties as early as 1990, and a Council for the Defense of Doctoral and Candidate Dissertations on Political Science has functioned since 1992, over the years only a few doctoral dissertations (Sergei Reshetnikov, Leonid Zemlyakov, Vasily Bushchik, Viktor Vatyl, and Vyacheslav Ageev) and approximately 30 candidate dissertations (essentially in applied topics, such as voters' behavior, the development of elite, political consciousness, symbolism, etc.) have been defended. In the Belarus National Academy of Sciences there is not a single member or corresponding member specializing in political science.
[21] One can say that even now the reappraisal of the meaning of political science as a discipline, and the development of paradigms are proceeding at a slow pace. For all practical purposes various paradigms have only been shown to exist, but have not manifested themselves in mature form. There is no developed political discourse as exists in Russia. There is no serious competition among paradigms. So what is the situation? As was said above, a reformed Marxist approach to society’s development prevails. However, other approaches do exist.
[22] First of all, there is the Neoliberal approach well-known in political science. This approach was noticeable in Russia in the mid 90’s especially among theoreticians of new-party formation.In Belarus, however, Neoliberalism has not received any sort of systematic account.
[23] Second, the so-called transitological approach remains popular. This approach too is not exactly the child of Belarus political scientists either; more exactly Belarus scholars are applying the theoretical work of other authors and are seeking a confirmation of this work in Belarus reality. Debates are taking place about which factors economic, political, social, etc. – are decisive for post-Soviet transformation to be successful. Since the end of the 1990's, as the existing political regime have became consolidated, inquiry has focused on the consolidation of government institutions.
[24] Third, the so-called nationalist paradigm was able to express itself which does not fit in any of the above-mentioned paradigms since it directly ties the type of changes taking place with the national traits of the Belarus people, their cultural traditions, as well as their specific religious value system (diversity of religious confessions). Thus, compared with overwhelmingly Catholic and monoethnic Poland, Belarus has totally different characteristics: the titular nation has not been significantly developed, national identity has not completely developed, and, as a result, ethnic minorities have never been subject to discrimination, so ethnic groups are developing a common identity as citizens of the Republic of Belarus and not as members of their own ethnic group. At the same time Belarus does not have a single predominant religion. According to sociological data only slightly more than half of the people identify themselves with one or another religion, and all three Christian religious confessions coexist (though their percentages differ). Catholics are the most active, which, within the framework of the above-mentioned nationalistic approach, makes it necessary to seek for a certain "special path of development" for Belarus.
[25] The above-mentioned paradigms are not equal in significance and do not have equal opportunities for development within the framework of academic scholarship. This has found obvious reflection in the new institutional structure that has by now become established. On the one hand, scholars representing all the paradigms are attempting theoretical analysis, since the development of purely applied aspects (i.e., implementation of the important function of political science) is dependent on such analysis. On the other hand, the public at large is able freely to acquaint itself mainly with the theoretical work of those who represent the academic branch of politology. Those who represent the opposition paradigms make use of the free press forum (Viacheslav Orgish, Valery Karbalevich), which inevitably limits the volume and style of the pieces they publish. Some others (Alexandr Feduta) focus their efforts on applied aspects of politology associated with particular political events (elections, referenda, etc.). The unprepared reader will not readily find materials presenting different political viewpoints in the press or on the Internet.
[26] If we compare Belarus political science with its Russian counterpart, where, according to Sergunin (2004), Westernizers, Eurasianists, realists, neo-Marxists, and even Postmodernists are represented, then one can assert that currently Belarus political science is represented by neo-Marxism (in the form of traditionalism, in Sergunin’s terminology) and nationalism (both in the form that supports the so called "party of the power” and its counterpart supporting opposition views).
[27] The institutionalization of a discipline always presupposes the creation of a specific framework whose elements are academic institutes, institutions of higher education, and analytical centers.
[28] Institutionalization assumes the publication on a regular basis of periodicals (specialized journals and symposia) which ensure professional communication in the scholarly community. From this viewpoint political science has not acquired full standing in the Belarus Republic; its institutionalization has not reached completion, even though a number of necessary institutional do elements exist.
[29] A primary characteristic of the institutionalization of political science in Belarus is that it is developing primarily in institutions of higher education. Since no separate political science research institute has been established within the framework of the National Academy of Sciences and there exists no national political science journal, it is the institutions of higher education which have assumed the role of locomotive in the development of political science.
[30] The first department of political science in Belarus was established in 1991 at Belarusian State University (BSU). Its first chairman, professor of philosophy Aleksandr Baichorov, who had had a great deal of international experience working at the UN, established in 1992 the subunit of Political Science at the Faculty of Philosophy and Economics. Professor Baychorov also established and headed the Specialized Council for the Defense of Doctoral Dissertations in Political Science at BSU. The training program for political scientists at BSU was based on the curriculum of the subunit of Political Science at the Faculty of Philosophy at Moscow State University. It was assumed that the demand for highly qualified political scientists would increase as the Belarus moved toward a civil society and rule of law. It was taken for granted that the rise of Belarus national political science and the development of Belarus schools of political science would be impossible without systematic training for professional political scientists.
[31] Today specialized departments of political science exist in state and non-governmental institutions of higher education of the republic: at Belarusian State University, the Belarus State University of Economics, Belarus Law Institute, the European Humanities University, and the Administration Academy under the office of the President of the Belarus Republic. However, more often, universities have combined departments whose faculty members teach political science along with other social science disciplines. Such is the case, for example at the Maxim Tank Belarus State Pedagogical University, which has Department of Political Science and Law, at the Alexandr Pushkin Brest State University, the Arkady Kuleshov Mogilev State University, the Belarus National Technical University (they have Departments of Political Science, Sociology and Social Management), and the Gomel State Technical University (Department of Political Science and History). Other Belarus institutions of higher education have departments of social sciences and humanities where political science is taught by specialists trained in philosophy, sociology, or history. In short specialized departments of political science are few and far between in Belarus. It is probable that as political science further develops and institutionalization continues the need will arise for new specialized departments. So far there is no such need, nor are there resources available.
[32] In Belarus political science is taught as a required discipline in all kinds of universities for the students of all specialties. A state standard for the subject "Political Science" has been established with a requirement of no less than 70 hours. Around 80 new textbooks have been published. Retraining of instructors has been organized. It has become possible to defend the dissertation in three political science specialties: 23.00.01 – Theory of Politics, History, and Methodology of Political Science; 23.00.02 – Political Institutes and Processes, Political Conflictology, Political Technologies; 23.00.04 - Political Problems of International Relations and Global Development.
[33] A second characteristic of institutionalization of political-science in Belarus is the important role played by analytical centers. Today over twenty Belarus organizations are involved in political analysis and strategic political inquiry. They may be devided into two groups: (a) state-funded and (b) private (non funded by the state) centers of inquiry. However, even the first group of analytical centers do not have full financial support from the state, so that they have to work partly as commercial organizations and do research for any ministry, private firm, political party, or political leader who are willing to pay.
[34] Two of the best known state-funded centers are the Institute of Sociopolitical Studies under the office of the President of the Republic of Belarus, and the Institute of Socio-Economic and Political Problems under the Minsk City Executive Council. Government analytical centers primarily work on the contract basis for government agencies and specialize in the monitoring of the current political situation inside and outside Belarus.
[35] A leading government center of inquiry and analysis is the Institute of Sociopolitical Studies (ISPOS) established in 1997. The main goal of the ISPOS is providing information and support to the President of the Belarus Republic and its administration, conducting comprehensive sociopolitical studies in support of the planning and design of government programs of development in Belarus. The main lines of scientific research of the ISPOS are: the analysis of various aspects of socio-political processes in and outside Belarus; the formulation of the main principles and directions of Belarus foreign policy; the mobilization of information resources for strengthening the political system and national security of Belarus; the study and preservation of the historical and cultural heritage, and the formulation of the ideological and political foundation of the Belarus state. The results of many of the ISPOS studies are published in the form of analytical reports presented to senior government officials. The ISPOS publishes on a regular basis collections of articles on the results of its studies. The structure of the institute is fairly dynamic and changes depending on the needs of the state. The ISPOS maintains fairly close contact with certain teaching and scholarly centers of Belarus: Belarusian State University, the Military Academy, the Institute of National Security of the Belarus Republic, as well as the Russian Institute for Strategic Studies, the Chinese Institute of Contemporary International Relations, and similar centers in Ukraine and Lithuania.
[36] Prominent among non-government centers are the Independent Institute of Socio-Economic and Political Studies (IISEPS), the Analytical Center "Strategy", and the voluntary organization Belarus Center of Constitutionalism and Comparative Law Studies. In 1997 a united Belarus Association of Think Tanks was established at a conference of leaders of 15 independent centers; the Association publishes its Analytical Bulletin, conducts roundtables, meetings and conferences.
[37] The IISEPS is the non-government research center best known outside Belarus. It was established in 1992 by a group of scholars, journalists, politicians, and businessmen. The purpose of the organization is to promote the values of democracy and market economics, and to promote civic society and a free market economy in Belarus through the study of socio-economic and political processes, and by influencing public opinion and public policy. The main forms of activity of the IISEPS are inquiry in political science, sociology, and economics, consulting, conducting conferences and seminars, publishing, and professional training. The IISEPS monitors the current sociopolitical situation in the country. The institute's data are representative and are often used as a reliable source of information by both the opposition and by government agencies. The institute is headed by Professor Oleg Manaev.
[38] A great deal of scholarly work is performed by specialized centers of studies established at the European Humanities University, especially the Center for Civic Education. It was established in 1997 with the information and financial support of the Center for Civic Education of the American Council for Collaboration in Education and Language Study (ACCELS), and the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). The Center develops education programs for various population groups, and is involved in inquiry and publishing. The European Humanities University includes a Center for European and Transatlantic Studies which functions with the support of the European Union and the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights of the OSCE. Together the centers contribute primarily to the development of applied political science studies in Belarus.
[39] Institutions of higher education and analytical centers in Belarus contribute much to the non-academic periodicals devoted to political-science issues: the "Belarus-monitor" journal, analytic bulletins of the Belarus Association of Thought Factories, and the "Open Society" Journal.
[40] A number of materials on political-science issues appear in university journals: Vestnik BGU. Ser. 3, [BGU Bulletin. Series 3], the Vestnik Ekonomicheskogo universiteta [Bulletin of the Economic University], and the Belarussky zhurnal mezhdunarodnogo prava i mezhdunarodykh otnosheny [Belarus Journal of International Law and International Relations].
[41] A third aspect of the institutionalization of Belarus political science is a certain insularity of the specialists studying international relations. Belarusian State University plays the main role in the development of this area of political knowledge; the University's International Relations Faculty trains future relations experts, and the European Documentation and Information Center and the Center for International Studies are both located at the Faculty.
[42] The European Documentation and Information Center was established on the basis of an agreement between BSU and the European Commission for the following purpose: supplying instructors and students basic documents reflecting the work and the institutional development of the European Union; the dissemination of information on the European Union among the general public; and the maintenance on a regular basis of contacts with members of the network of European Union information centers. The European Documentation Center has translated the principal European Union documents into the Belarus language. Partnering with the Center are the Delegation of the European Commission in Belarus, and the TASIS program. Many conferences have been organized by this Center: the international conferences, Problems of Teaching European Integration in Institutions of Higher Education (2001), Expansion of the European Union and Belarus: in Search of a New Policy (2002), Democracy: Academic or Political Term? (2002), and others. Frequently the conferences are organized jointly by this Center with the Public Association for European Studies (Minsk), the A. Ebert Fund (Minsk), and the Section for Non-governmental Organizations and Civil Society of the Council of Europe (Strasburg).
[43] Finally, fourth, professional associations of political scientists were established. Currently, two professional associations of political scientists function in Belarus: the Belarus Political Science Association (BPSA) and the Belarus Academy of Political Sciences (BelAPS).
[44] The Belarus Political Science Association was established in 1993; it is headed by the former Soviet political scientist, corresponding member of the Belarus National Academy of Sciences Vladimir Bobkov. As the constitution of the organization states, "BPSA was founded for the purpose of combining the efforts of political science specialists to help conduct analysis and prognostication of the political process, the collective and individual formulation of the proposals for the state, political, and socio-economic development of Belarus, and to contribute to the establishment of civil society and the rule of law." During the ten years of its existence, the BPSA has organized the the following conferences: the Contemporary Political Process in Belarus and Prospects for its Development (1994), Civic and National Harmony – a Necessary Condition for Uniting Belarus Society (1995), the Political Process in Belarus and Prospects for its Development (1996), the Political and Socioeconomic Process in Belarus: Status, Prospects, and Problems (1997), the Rise of Civil Society in Belarus in the Context of Stable Development (1999), the Contemporary Political and Socioeconomic Process in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine: Status, Problems, and Prospects (2000), the Stable Development of Contemporary Large Cities: Theory, Experience, and Problems (2002).
[45] Most of the BPSA leadership is concentrated at the Institute of Sociopolitical and Economic Studies under the Minsk City Council, which makes it possible to use administrative resources. This institute specializes in investigations of the forms and methods of operation of the Belarus executive branch of government, the study of its interaction with nongovernmental enterprises and organizations. Currently a group of authors including Vladimir Bobkov, Aleksandr Abramovich, Viktor Bovsh, Grigorii Vasilevich, Vladimir Melnik and others are formulating the Concept of Nation-building in the Republic of Belarus.
[46] The second national organization of political scientists, the Belarus Academy of Political Sciences was established in 1998; its membership includes scholars, educators, and officials of the republic. The Academy carries out monitoring and prognostication of the political situation in the republic, provides expert advice for political decisions, and political education for the public at large. According to the BAPS constitution its main goals are: contributing to the development of political science and to the formation of a market for political ideas in Belarus. The BAPS combines the efforts of its members to help solve the following problems: determining priorities in the development of political science in Belarus; coordination of political science studies; promotion of the training of highly qualified scholars; dissemination among scholars of the findings of the world's leading political scientists, promotion of political science knowledge; assistance in the formulation of draft legislation, forecasting the effect of governmental decisions and assessment of alternative proposals; analysis of public opinion and of the political views of various population groups, as well as individual work collectives with a view to improving political cooperation and ascertaining the level of the population’s political activity; promotion of knowledge regarding the Belarus political system, economy, education, and culture among the publics of other countries; setting up contacts among scholars and specialists in professional and academic areas, including international humanitarian project and program development.
[47] BAPS members have taken part in international conferences such as: A Decade of Change: Constitutional Transformation in Central and Eastern Europe (Warsaw, 2000), Globalization and Development of Political Systems in European States (Warsaw, 2000), The International Congress of Belarusists (Minsk, 2000), Towads Democracy through Civic Society (Stettin, 2000), Political system of Belarus: Achievements, Problems, and Possibilities for Improvement (Minsk, 2001), and others.
[48] Summarizing the brief overview of the process of institutionalization, it is possible to repeat that there are still no scholarly institutions in Belarus which would conduct basic research in political science. There is no political science institute within the framework of the National Academy of Sciences, and there is no center that would coordinate multidisciplinary political studies. In other words, no scholarly foundation has been established which would support the work of various research institutions, centers, and departments; there is no multidisciplinary center to help focus and coordinate political science inquiry.
[49] However, the fragmentation and disunity of the community of politologists, the isolation of research and teaching centers are not the sole obstacles hindering the strengthening of political science. The state of Belarus political science has worsened in the last few years. The number of scholarly publications has decreased. Fewer conferences and seminars are being conducted with the active participation of non-government national and foreign centers. Many foreign foundations have ceased functioning in the Republic of Belarus (such as the Soros Foundation, IREX Belarus office), so that opportunities for Belarus politologists to participate in international conferences and scholarly projects, to receive research and travel grants and internships abroad have been curtailed. Politicians continue to show little interest in quality political analysis. Politologists are in demand only as political technologists to help win a political campaign. There is scarce demand for critical thinking and independent political science inquiry on the part of official agencies or opposition figures. The Belarus public does not enjoy the opportunity of supplying political materials or accurate applied information so much required for the development of a civic society.
[50] At present specialization are taking place in Belarus political science that is, different branches of research are being defined and political sub-disciplines are being formulated as a result of the fragmentation of the political subject field. These processes are natural for a development of any discipline, however, in Belarus they are not contributing to the institutionalization of the political science and to consolodation of the professional community of scholars. The shortage of specialists with a basic political science education leads in practice to the prevalence of insufficiently qualified personnel, to a lowering of the level of political discourse and the narrowing of the area of openness.
[51] A significant feature of the current stage of development of political science in Belarus is the buildup of potential, on the one hand, and a low degree of organization, on the other. The Belarus school of political science is at a formative stage. In the last few years the technological, applied character of political science studies has become evident. On the one hand, academic political scientists have come to understand that curricula should evolve from a theoretical exposition of the subject matter toward a greater practical applicability. On the other hand, one can speak of the increasing professionalism teaching, research and analytical centers.
[52] The main center for the teaching and development of political science, the training of political-science specialists remains the Department of Political Science of Belarusian State University. Today this department belongs to the Faculty of Law. As a result BSU is training specialists with the qualification "political scientist-jurist". The political science training program is designed to provide students a liberal arts university education; solid, systematic knowledge in the area of classic political science subjects, as well as theoretical knowledge and practical skills in the specialty of their choice.
[53] The Department of Political Science actively cooperates with the universities abroad, such as California State University, Fresno (US) and the Institute of Political Science of Warsaw University. Belarus professors and instructors have the opportunity to intern in these institutions. With the assistance of Professor Alfred B. Evans (US) an English-language political science library with several hundred volumes was established at the Chair of Political Science.
[54] The curriculum of the Department of Political Science provides for training in five main areas of political science: political science theory, comparative politics, management and administration, methodology and methods of political science, and international relations. About thirty courses are given in these areas. Here are the main ones: General Political Science; Introduction to Political Theory; Theory of Politics; Theory of Democracy; Theory of Political Systems; Comparative Politics; Political Science Methodology; Political Sociology; Human Rights; Theory of State Administration; Political Decision-making Theory; Public Policy; Political Parties and Party Systems; Political Ideologies; Voluntary Associations; Political Campaign Organization; Political Psychology; Ethnic Politics; Religions in the Belarus Republic; Political Culture; Local Government Abroad; Foreign policy of the Belarus Republic; and Political Problems of Contemporary Globalistics.
[55] Textbooks and teaching aids have been published for the main courses. Many of the lecture courses are available to students in electronic form. Political science students make wide use of American, Russian, Polish, Ukrainian and French textbooks.
[56] What career opportunities are there for the political science specialists? In the West political science graduates are in great demand in all areas, including business. They work in government agencies, and in private companies and organizations. In Belarus a political science jurist with the background mentioned above has been trained to work in the representative, executive and judicial branches of government in accordance with Belarus legislation on government service (at all levels of ministries, committees, Council of Ministers offices, and the secretariat of the Parliament, the National Assembly). Political science graduates can supply consulting and practical assistance to the representative, executive, and local government agencies, political parties, and public organizations of Belarus. They can take part in the drafting of legislation and opinions regarding legislation, materials and proposals involving the operation of services and agencies of Belarus. They are trained to fill public relations positions in government and non-government political organizations, and local government agencies, to handle issues of political, economic, social and cultural development of society and government.
[57] The BSU Department of Political Science was the main entity to develop the State Education Standard for the specialty "Political Science" and the subject "Political Science" for all institutions of higher learning of the Belarus Republic.
[58] The largest center contributing to the training of international relations specialists is the BSU Faculty of International Relations, especially the Department of International Relations (Dean and Chairman, Professor Aleksandr Sharapo, Doctor of Historical Sciences). Research at the Department conducted in international relations in the areas of politics, economics, and law; and significant issues relating to the development of state protocol, consulate, and customs services of the Republic of Belarus. These are high priority issues for Belarus.
[59] The Faculty of International Relations (FIR) publishes the scholarly journal "Belarusskii zhurnal mezhdunarodnogo prava i mezhdunarodnykh otnoshenii" (Belarus Journal of International Law and International Relations). The information center of the FIR publishes a monthly "Informatsionnii bulleten" (Information Bulletin) which discusses contemporary international relations, international economic relations and international law, based on the publications in Western, Russian, and Belarus sources of information.
[60] The Faculty of International Relations cooperates with a number of international centers:
[61] the Association of Schools of Central and Eastern Europe on Research in International Relations; the Free University of Berlin (Germany); the Geneva Institute of International Studies (Switzerland); the Vienna Diplomatic Academy (Austria); the University of Georgia Center for International Trade and Security (USA); the Center for Security Studies and Conflict Research at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich (Switzerland); the Moscow State Institute of International Relations of the Russian Federation Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the ASSER Instituut in the Hague and the Center for European Cooperation in Leiden (Netherlands); the Military Institute (Moscow); and the Goethe Institute.
[62] The training of political science specialists in Belarus is also conducted in some non-governmental institutions of higher education: the Institute of Parliamentarism and
[63] Entrepreneurship (first graduating class, 1998), the Belarus Institute of Law, and the European Humanities University. Enrolments at the political science departments of these institutions are small and some years (1997-1999) nonexistent. The best training among non-governmental institutions is at the European Humanities University.
[64] The European Humanities University (EHU) trains political scientists at the Franco-Belarus Faculty of Political Sciences and Problems of European Integration in the specialty political-scientist-manager. A number of courses at EHU are given in French. The EHU Department of Political Science specializes in the study of European integration. In fact, this Faculty was established at the initiative of the Embassy of France in Belarus and educational projects conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France in Central and Eastern Europe. The Faculty makes it possible for students to receive an education equivalent to that available in political science institutes and on faculties of law and political science in French universities. The Faculty trains specialists in such areas as international relations, social sciences, and the management of state and private Belarus, foreign, and mixed enterprises. The Faculty has cooperation agreements with political science institutes in Bordeaux, Grenoble, Lyon, Lille, Rennes, and Strasbourg. The co-dean of the Faculty from the French side is the Counselor on Cooperation and Culture of the Embassy of France in the Republic of Belarus, Silvie Lemasson, Doctor of Political Sciences.
[65] EHU students specialize in the study of European integration. Visiting professors lecture in French. After graduation the best students have the opportunity of continuing their education in the graduate school of one of the political science institutes of France. On a yearly basis a Council meets in France which includes authoritative scholars representing French institutions of higher education cooperating with the Faculty. The Council monitors the quality of the education, program content and selects instructors; it organizes the recruitment of Belarus interns and their work and ensures the implementation of research projects.
[66] It should be noted that political science plays a substantial role in the curricula of Belarus high schools. It is political scientists at institutions of higher education (the Department of Political Science of BSU) who initiated the design of the entrance examination for the course "Man and Society" for graduates applying to Belarus institutions of higher education. Today the subject "Man, Society, and the State" is studied in all Belarus high schools; based on this course students take college/university entrance examinations in liberal arts specialties.
[67] Beginning in the 2003-2004 academic year the course titled "Ideology of the Belarus State" was introduced in Belarus institutions of higher education. Its main purpose is the promotion of the political line chosen for Belarus under the leadership of President Lukashenko. In the opinion of officials this course can do much to further the political education of students, which has been declared one of the aims of the education system.
[68] The standard for today’s professional political scientist has been formulated: political science college/university education, the appropriate degree, publishing on a regular basis, constant professional training, including internships abroad, proficiency in one or two foreign languages. According to this model, political sciences have to have a capacity for political analysis (including analysis of data of the national monitoring and assessment on a regular basis of the political process), be open for interaction with a large number of other scholars (including foreign ones).
[69] Today's published materials in Belarus political science show that the scholarly community is fully aware of current problems and trends in the development of political science. The available literature can be broken down into several topics:
[70] Added to this range of problems is the analysis of the current political situation. As a whole the topics of political science inquiry in Belarus range widely (at the same time only certain, essentially applied topics are investigated in depth and in a comprehensive manner). Published have been papers in political theory, methodology, and methods of political analysis, studies of political institutions and the political process, international relations, foreign policy, geopolitics, etc. Teaching and academic centers stress the development of theoretical aspects of political science and the creation of an empirical basis for political analysis in the republic.
[71] Certain state research and teaching centers of Belarus have in recent years been paying a great deal of attention to the theory of governmental policy formulation and administration, the study of the principles underlying the formulation and implementation of governmental policy in Belarus; and the theory of administrative decision making. "Governmental administration" as a comprehensive line of research and education is being actively developed at the Administration Academy under the office of the President of the Belarus Republic.
[72] Non-governmental analytical centers are involved in the monitoring of the political process and the development of political technologies designed to influence the political process. One of the key lines of research for independent analytical centers is establishing contacts with western foundations, developing civil society institutions, efforts directed toward creating a climate of openness and a certain political space for the interaction of political science specialists through seminars and conferences of Belarus NGO's. Too often, however, the range of target groups toward which such activity is directed is strictly limited, predetermined.
[73] Disunity, fragmentation are typical both for the internal structure of Belarus political science and for the scholarly community: academic political science and applied politology represented by analytical and expert services rarely intersect. Research centers (both state-funded and commercial) were established under circumstances different from academic political science. Some Belarus political scientists (Bozhanov, Manaev) openly speak of "timidity and bias in studies of actual politics at the expense of objectivity in judgments". This position indicates the need for further substantial development of the methodological foundations of Belarus political science. This will make it possible to formulate more precise criteria for scientific character and objectivity, based on a comprehensive approach involving the relevant methods and methodology of political analysis.
[74] Political science studies make use of quantitative (mostly sociological) methods: regional and nationwide surveys, surveys of opinion leaders and experts, content analysis of mass-media reports and documents, analysis of programmatic documents of leading entities of civil society (political parties, voluntary organizations, government agencies), analysis of legislation, analysis of socioeconomic statistics (carried out on as constant basis based on materials of the Ministry of Statistics and Analysis, the National Bank and other sources). Also widespread is the use of qualitative methods based on general theoretical analysis techniques.
[75] Belarus political science makes active use of the toolkit developed in other socio-humanitarian disciplines: the institutional, value system-based, systemic, historical, comparative, and other methods. The problem of the use of specialized research methods, i.e., specific methods of political analysis is considered urgent. Included in this group are methods developed in political science proper, as well as combined and modified methods originating in other social sciences, to form a toolbox used only in the analysis of political issues. Speaking of quantitative methods, let us note that Belarus political scientists frequently resort to secondary analysis of quantitative data and documents, content analysis, scenario techniques, and modeling. In widespread use are also methods of direct and indirect expert assessment (especially brain storm methods).
[76] Political sociology is making a great contribution to the development of political science methodology. The BSU Center for Sociological and Political Research headed by Professor David Rotman, Doctor of Sociological Sciences, conducts electoral studies on a regular basis, and also studies the Republic's political institutions from an applied perspective. The Center has taken part in many all-European political studies including the study of post- Soviet political elites and leaders. The Center employs highly qualified sociologists and political scientists who are taking part in international political studies (e.g., democracy and local authorities, charismatic leaders, and the electoral process). David Rotman has devised many of his own methods for measuring public opinion, political leader popularity, and electorate segmentation during electoral campaigns (for example, the "sieve," that is, respondent selection and grouping according to their responses to six questions, and the "from the past to the future" method capable of correct political prognostication). The Center has developed its methods of computing indices of political stability and social tension. Along with tackling issues of research methodology the Center conducts practical political studies on contract from political parties, government agencies, and individual politicians.
[77] The Institute of Sociology of the National Academy of Sciences also actively studies political institutions (as part of a general analysis of social institutions), and monitors public opinion on contract for government agencies. The Institute has published a number of books on political elites, socio-political change in Belarus, and specifics of government policy (Vasili Bushchik, Igor Kotlyarov, Evgenii Babosov).
[78] In practice while Belarus political science makes use of many political technologies, including Western ones, this is not always done correctly. Newspapers and newsmagazines sometimes apply in a superficial manner theoretical schemes developed in Western (most often American) political science to analyze Belarus conditions that are totally irrelevant to these schemes. Large data bases based on event-analysis principles do not yet exist. There is no single all-Belarus bank of empirical political studies data.
[79] The low level of mastery of quantitative methods of analysis, their inadequate use in political science research are due to the fact that the infrastructure of empirical studies of politics is still at a formative stage. As professional political scientists are trained at BSU and EHU one can hope that these natural "growing pains" of young Belarus political science will be overcome.
[80] The immaturity of institutions characteristic of democratic societies (parliamentarism, the party system, NGO’s, professional associations, operating openly and competing with each other) leads a number of scholarly and analytic centers to cooperate with a government hich remains a major source of contracts. Research centers compete with each other for large government contracts (in the public policy area); this is characteristic of today's state of development of political science studies in Belarus.
[81] Under the current political regime it has become risky to engage in political science. Therefore centers involved in political studies are curtailing the extent of genuine political studies, and are tending to conduct studies in socially neutral areas simply to prevent government agencies from holding it against them. Research in political science is poorly financed and is not in great demand on the part of the political elite.
[82] Let us now look at what is being published in Belarus political science. First of all, a number textbooks and monographs have appeared reflecting the state of political science in the world. At the beginning of 1990th Aleksandr Baichorov (1991) and Sergei Reshetnikov (1990) published their political science textbooks. Many materials on the history of philosophical and sociopolitical thought in Belarus also appeared (Vyacheslav Shalkevich, Joseph Iukho, and Sigizmund Malevich). Beginning in 1993-1994 materials appeared on different spheres of political research: political theory (Vladimir Rovdo, Lyudmila Starovoitova); theory of liberalism (konstantin Kuncevich), systemic approach to political science, comparative analysis of political systems (Sergei Reshetnikov, Nina Antanovich, Vyacheslav Matusevich, Vladimir Bozhanov); political parties (Igor Kotlyarov), contemporary global problems, geopolitics (Yury Shevtsov, Galina Kruglova); methodology of sociopolitical studies, political technologies (
